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By: Bertram G. Katzung MD, PhD
- Professor Emeritus, Department of Cellular & Molecular Pharmacology, University of California, San Francisco
http://cmp.ucsf.edu/faculty/bertram-katzung
However 72210 treatment, personal importance of motherhood had a stronger association with confidence in biomedicine than the stigma of infertility symptoms your dog has worms. These findings do not take away from the fact that this analysis found support for the relation between stigma and attitudes about infertility medicine look up drugs, but do suggest that more research needs to be conducted to fully understand the social level factors influencing fertility-related attitudes such as confidence in biomedicine medicine zanaflex. Possible explanations for the stronger relation between the importance of motherhood and confidence in biomedicine included the notion that if a woman deeply desires to become a mother, she may be more likely to pursue whatever avenues are within her reach and maintain a high confidence in biomedicine to remedy her infertility, compared to a woman who feels a great deal of stigma associated with her infertility. To women who place a high value on biological motherhood, medicine represents agentic possibility in the western world. In contrast, a woman who feels a deep sense of stigma associated with her infertility may view medical interventions for infertility in a different way. For example, a woman who feels a deep sense of stigma may not place as high of confidence in 109 biomedicine to get pregnant compared to women who place a great deal of importance on becoming a mother. Overall, future research would do well to continue an investigation into the possible mechanisms influencing the stigma of infertility and its relation with confidence in biomedicine. In Chapter 3, marital status was the only covariate significantly associated with confidence in biomedicine (e. This finding is expected, considering married women likely feel a greater pressure to fulfill social norms associated with biological reproduction and would therefore place a higher confidence in biomedicine to remedy their infertility and help them to meet societal expectations of femininity. That is, previous research has found that the ideal family type includes two heterosexual, married parents, with biological offspring (Fisher, 2003; Parry, 2005; Wegar, 2000). Although this category included the cohabiting, the number of cohabiting respondents alone was much smaller in the sample (n=19) than the married (n=683). Thus, the �union� variable included in Chapter 3 represented the married more so than the cohabiting. The fact that no other covariates were significantly associated with confidence in biomedicine points to the need for continued research on diverse populations to determine which other factors might be influential in determining attitudes. Overall, this dissertation research contributed to the study of infertility from a theoretical, methodological and substantive stance. First, this research contributed to the body of literature on infertility from a sociological perspective, thereby enhancing the existing theoretical knowledge on the topic. A plethora of research has been conducted within the biomedical field, and a burgeoning body of literature also exists within the psychological discipline and offers practitioners methods of helping infertile individuals or couples learn coping techniques to deal with the mental and emotional strain. However, much less research has analyzed infertility from 110 a structural viewpoint, such as the stigma of infertility. Because one of the primary aims of sociological research is to uncover the structural level factors implicit in micro level interactions (e. This research also extended Goffmans theory of stigma into the realm of infertility. Specifically, this research provided support for the power of stigma in influencing fertility-related outcomes such as distress. Second, this dissertation offered a methodological contribution to the existing research on infertility. Finally, my analysis added to the substantive research on infertility because I considered the structural and psychological facets of infertility that affect women. Specifically, my consideration of the stigma associated with infertility, as well as the psychological importance that women may place on becoming mothers, may help mental health professionals to better address the negative psychological outcomes associated with infertility at multiple levels. In addition, when armed with both the structural and psychological influences associated with 111 infertility, doctors can move beyond simply treating their patients physical ailments, and point them towards the proper coping resources as they navigate the infertility experience within the clinical setting. Finally, by drawing attention to the stigmatized nature of infertility within society, we may be able to move beyond these deviant characterizations of those struggling with the problem and increase societal awareness and empathy. Doing so could reduce negative outcomes such as distress for those facing infertility. Furthermore, because this was a secondary data analysis, the variables utilized in the study did not directly measure the particular research questions presented in each chapter. In Chapters 1 and 2, the fact that the sample largely cited a low level of fertility-specific distress may have affected the results. Prior research has also warned that dichotomizing womens pregnancy intentions into trying/not trying may be problematic, as this analysis did, since women who are �okay either way� may still feel fertility-specific distress when they do not become pregnant. Incorporating multiple categories of intentions may help to more accurately capture womens experiences (Greil et al. However, I was not able to include multiple categories of intention to have a baby because of small cell size for some of the categories. Finally, the measure of stigma I used in this analysis was limited for two reasons. First, the measure of stigma was aimed at garnering respondents general perceptions of stigma within society. Other research has posited that stigma is best measured using multiple dimensions. Specifically, Bresnahan and Zhuang (2011) found support for five dimensions of stigma. In general, future research should aim to incorporate the experiences of non-white womens infertility and strive towards incorporating non-clinical samples of women facing infertility. Future research would also benefit from further interrogation of the stigma of infertility and the importance of motherhood and their relation to various fertility-related outcomes. Although it is difficult to disentangle the individual and structural levels, it is nevertheless an important task that may help mental health or medical professionals to understand and alleviate negative infertility outcomes such as distress. Overall, more data collected on the specific experiences of individuals and social stigma due to their infertility would greatly help to elucidate this powerful social force. Variation in distress among women with infertility: Evidence from a population-based sample. Pregnancy intentions among women who do not try: focusing on women who are okay either way. Work, leisure and support groups: An examination of the ways women with infertility cope with pronatalist ideology.
The threshold above which the risk presentation in children symptoms of mono, even though there is a similar rate develops in adults is uncertain; some studies indicate of kidney function decline medications ibs. Since the risk factors presented above have been 474 medicine 48 12,477 when time-averaged proteinuria was above 1 g/d medicine images. A validated in both children and adults, clinicians should large observational study demonstrated that a reduction of consider these before the age of the patient. Similarly, it is proteinuria to o1 g/d carried the same favorable impact on uncertain whether geographical or ethnic variations in long-term outcome, whether the initial value was 1�2 g/d, outcomes are secondary to different biopsy and treatment 477 475 2�3 g/d, or 43 g/d. Macroscopic come, such as a 50% decline in proteinuria, have been hematuria is more frequent in children, and some studies have 482 used. In children, observational studies have also con associated its presence with a favorable outcome, while others sistently shown a relationship between the level of protein have shown this bene t to be confounded by a higher initial 502,503 uria and outcome, but did not assess a threshold value. Graded) Numerous studies have addressed the predictive value of 489,490 pathology ndings. Patients who presented with ity; (ii) segmental glomerulosclerosis; (iii) endocapillary Z3 g/d who achieved proteinuria o1 g/d had a similar hypercellularity; and (iv) tubular atrophy/interstitial brosis, course to patients who had o1 g/d throughout, and fared far as independent pathological variables predicting kidney better than patients who never achieved this level. There was complete remission of 2 with rapidly deteriorating kidney function proteinuria (o0. After a median K There is insufficient evidence that immunosuppressive follow-up of 4. Given 526 these results and the potential side-effects, we do not suggest given for 6 months over controls. The reasons for adults, tested azathioprine and corticosteroids in patients heterogeneity of outcome require further investigation, but with preserved kidney function. They demonstrated a different ethnicity or differences in drug levels achieved may reduction in chronic lesions compared to controls on repeat be contributory factors. Caucasians, including evaluation of patients), sh oil (4 g/d, 32 patients), and placebo (31 patients) drug and metabolite levels. However, another prospective proteinuria Z1 g/d, despite 3�6 trial reported that high (6. Longer there were signi cant limitations of the evidence in this meta follow-up con rmed the bene cial in uence of sh oil analysis, due to suboptimal quality of individual controlled 530 treatment in this study. Importantly, the effect of antiplatelet agents alone Kidney International Supplements (2012) 2, 209�217 213 chapter 10 could not be discerned because patients received other hyperlipidemia) are uncommon. Thus, in three studies, both treatment nephrotic syndrome have been identi ed in whom kidney and control groups received other agents, including cyto biopsy shows minimal glomerular changes by light micro toxics, steroids, antihypertensive agents, and anticoagulants. In function worsening, there is no im these studies, tonsillectomy was often combined with other� provement. However, the typical accompanying ndings of completely after the disappearance of macroscopic complete nephrotic syndrome (edema, hypoalbuminemia, hematuria. Durations of were divided into four groups: group 1, absence of crescents treatment in these three series varied from 3 to 24 months. Ten-year renal survival rates were 100% in ve patients using plasma exchange in a combination of 553 group 1, 94. The in ltrates in glomeruli may contribute to the or statement appears in this Journal, they wish to make it clear crescentic formation. Diffuse crescent formation was de ned that the data and opinions appearing in the articles and 551 by 50% or more of the glomeruli affected. In a study of Supplementary Table 48: Meta-analyses and systematic reviews on immunosuppression for IgA nephropathy. In another study, although an improved out Supplementary Table 51: Meta-analyses and systematic reviews on immunosuppression for IgA nephropathy. Supplementary Table 65: Meta-analyses and systematic reviews on Supplementary material is linked to the online version of the paper at antiplatelet therapy for IgA nephropathy. Ninety percent of support the use of corticosteroids in children with established 561 children had developed kidney involvement by 8 weeks after nephritis of any severity, though corticosteroids are widely acute presentation, while 97% developed kidney involvement used in children presenting with nephrotic-range proteinuria by 6 months. Seven 2 while proteinuria 420 mg/m /h was associated with recur of 36 children (19%) in the prednisone group still had kidney 557 rence and severe abdominal pain. There are no data, other than reducing proteinuria during follow-up periods of up to small observational studies, examining the treatment of 511 510 48 months or 96 months. Treatment with prednisone and azathioprine resulted in improvement in acuity score but not chronicity score. Corticosteroids were not K There is moderate-quality evidence to recommend that administered to these children. There were no remission compared to ve of nine children treated with signi cant differences in the risk of persistent kidney disease 567 methylprednisolone. There was no additional bene t of cyclopho the risk of severe nephritis (nephrotic-range protein sphamide compared to steroids alone. The investigators uria, hypertension with/without reduced kidney function) commented that the small population size did not permit between children treated with prednisone or placebo at de nitive conclusions. The objective is to rapidly decrease kidney inflam or a repeat kidney biopsy be performed to mation by initial intensive treatment, and then consolidate guide further treatment. Glomerular lesions are classi ed as active (A) or chronic K the benefit of the addition of cyclophosphamide to (C). Chronic lesions include follow-up, this combination decreased the frequency of segmental and global glomerulosclerosis. However, if the histologic lesions are mainly chronic K the efficacy of newer initial treatment regimens should (see Rationale) there may be less overt clinical activity, other be assessed not only by initial responses, but also by long than progressive kidney failure. There is no standard de nition of treatment response for Widely used treatment regimens are shown in Table 28.
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Holoprosen tion between the fourth ventricle and the enlarged cephaly is usually associated with craniofacial mal cisterna magna (Fig medications used for fibromyalgia. Choroid plexus cysts tion rate by routine fetal anomaly scan is high for are found in approximately 1�2% of fetuses in a low both the alobar and semilobar forms of holoprosen risk population (Chitty et al symptoms pulmonary embolism. On ultrasound treatment gonorrhea, choroid plexus as translucent areas extending from the dilatated lat cysts with a variable diameter are detected as hypoe eral ventricles to the subarachnoid space symptoms vaginal yeast infection. The majority will resolve by trasound include the Dandy�Walker complex and 24�28 weeks of gestation (Chitkara et al. It is generally accepted that such cysts re complex refers to a spectrum of abnormalities of the flect a normal variation of the intracranial anatomy. Arteriovenous fistulas from the malformation is characterized by failure of develop choroidal, anterior cerebral and other arteries to the ment of the cerebellar vermis with a midline cyst-like vein of Galen lead to the aneurysmal dilatation of appearance in the posterior fossa with communica the vein (Fig. On ultrasound, a large midline 114 Chapter 3 Causes of Congenital Malformations Fig. Rotation of brain volume im colour Doppler investigation a turbulent blood flow age and multiplanar analysis enable tomographic can be demonstated (Gerards et al. Three-dimensional ultrasound Three-dimensional ultrasound can be used for sur provides the ability to simultaneously view a brain face reconstruction, multiplanar image analysis and volume in all three scanning planes. The the three orthogonal planes proved to be most help surface mode shows not only fetal head anomalies ful in delineating the exact nature and level of the such as acrania but also the normal structure of cra defect. Agenesis of the corpus the posterior cranial fossa is not hindered by the en callosum is also such an anomaly easily missed on gagement of the fetal head, especially not in the third ultrasound examination, although it is often suspect trimester. The sig it may be difficult to distinguish between hydro nal intensity of the bleeding varies with its duration cephalus and mild forms of holoprosencephaly. A 15�20-ml aliquot of amniotic fluid is taken transabdominally under ultrasound guidance, usually between 14 and 16 weeks of gestation. It is used for detecting chromosomal abnor large studies but it may be higher (Nicolaides et al. Fetal blood biopsied chorionic villi can be performed both from sampling may be used at about 20 weeks of gestation direct examination or from short-term culture of the for chromosomal analysis when ultrasound or other cytotrophoblast and/or long-term culture of fibrob invasive tests have shown a fetal anomaly. Complications of out transabdominally from the umbilical cord chorion villus sampling are, apart from reliability, (Fig. Fetal blood sampling is not routinely jury, especially oromandibular/limb hypogenesis done but miscarriage risk in experienced hands is in syndrome and transverse limb reduction defects, the the order of 1. Although fetal injury after amniocentesis has been re ported, reports of brain injury are rare. Arnold, London, pp 110�127 Squier W,Chamberlain P,Zaiwalla Z,Anslow P,Oxbury J,Gould S, Case Report. Dev Med Child Neurol traumatic amniocentesis at 16 weeks of gestation are 42:554�560 shown in Fig. The baby had a scar on the left side of the scalp, and developed hemiplegia and in tractable epilepsy. In Karyotyping families with an X-linked disorder only X-chromoso Chromosome analysis can be performed on any tis mal polymorphic markers will be used. Eventually a sue with living nucleated cells which undergo divi marker can be identified which cosegregates with the sion. Circulating lymphocytes from peripheral blood disease or in other words the marker locus and the are most commonly used, but also skin, bone mar disease locus are linked. Since ter culturing and a technical preparation, different usually many markers are used, it is possible to con staining methods can be used in order to identify the struct a linked haplotype: a set of alleles of linked individual chromosomes by their banding pattern markers with on each side a recombined non-linked such as G (Giemsa) banding, which gives each chro marker, so defining the linkage interval or the linked mosome a characteristic and reproducable pattern of chromosomal region. G banding is the most widely pressed in centimorgan: the smaller the region, the used banding technique with up to 400�500 bands. High-resolution banding provides greater sensitivity Positional gene cloning uses two strategies. The with up to 800 bands,but is much more time consum first is based on linkage studies: if the linkage interval ing. In this way, for in whereby each chromosome is pairwise represented stance,the cystic fibrosis gene was found. When subsequently in other pa rescent label which gives a visible signal after hy tients with that monogenic disease mutations in the bridization (Fig. Candi drome, 7q11 deletion in Williams syndrome, 15q11 date gene mapping is another method. From animal maternal deletion in Angelmann syndrome and models and the human genome project information 15q11 paternal deletion in Prader�Willi syndrome. In about genes and the gene content of a given linkage these examples the clinical suspicion is highly rele interval can be retrieved. Newer techniques have been devel the genes is available and this allows for the selection oped�and are being improved�to detect even smaller of one or more candidate genes for a given disorder. In this way p63 was found to be the gene in croarray-based comparative genomic hybridization; volved in the ectrodactyly�ectodermal dysplasia Sismani et al. This cation of genes involved in monogenic disorders is gives reliable results, though never 100% reliable, linkage analysis; its aim is to map the locus where the provided the disease locus is known,the clinical diag putative gene, mutated in the involved monogenic nosis is correct, the disease is homogeneous, a suffi disease, is located. Linkage analysis is based on the cient number of family members are available and re fact that when two loci are sufficiently close together combination does not occur. It involves study of the segregation of not finding the mutation does not necessarily 3. Also carrier testing is reliably erally threatened by energy deficiency or intoxi possible for autosomal and X-linked recessive disor cation.
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